Hansen & Quinn, Greek: An Intensive Course, Unit 3
Morphological content in this unit:
28. Perfect Indicative Active
29. Pluperfect Indicative Active
30. Perfect Infinitive Active
31. Present Subjective Active
32. Aorist Subjunctive Active
33. Present Optative Active
34. Aorist Optative Active
A quick note on the progressive aspect:
The base of the verb φυλάττω, introduced in the vocabulary of this unit, is φυλακ/. The present progressive φυλάττω is the result of combining the base with the progressive aspect marker /J/. The letter J is not a Greek letter but represents the glide /y/. It combines with a labial or dental stop consonant to produce ζ. Lots of common verbs fall into this category, like νομιδ/J/ω > νομίζω, “I think” (Unit 16), though Hansen & Quinn doesn’t include many of them. When J combines with a velar stop consonant, as here, it produces σσ. Curiously, Attic shifts the pronunciation of σσ to ττ. Thus φυλακ/J/ω > φυλάσσω (other dialects) and φυλάττω (Attic).
For the other progressive aspect markers in Greek, see here.
28. Perfect Indicative Active
The perfect aspect describes the result of an action in the present. Whereas “I learned” (past aorist) says nothing about what I remember now, “I have learned” (present perfect) means that I’m able to employ that information now.
The perfect is a present time tense, so it does not use past time markers.
The perfect aspect has perhaps the widest variety of available markers, and most verbs take more than one perfect aspect marker. The verbs we have learned so far exhibit most of the available perfect aspect markers, but not all of them. The intrepid student can find a comprehensive discussion of the perfect here <link> and an analysis of all Hansen & Quinn verbs here.
First, if the base begins with a single consonant or a consonant followed by ρ, to mark perfect aspect that consonant is reduplicated with an intervening ε:
| κε/κελευ/ λε/λυ/ πε/παιδευ/ πε/πεμπ/ γε/γραφ/ θε/θυ/ πε/παυ/ φε/φυλακ/ |
We will see later that bases that begin in other double consonant groups use ἐ/ as a perfect aspect marker, and bases that begin with a vowel use L/ as a perfect aspect marker. Both look like past time markers, but they are not:
<example with ἐ/>
| L/ἀρχ/ > ἠρχ/ (see Unit 5) |
Grassmann’s Law is a form of dissimilation where, when two consecutive syllables begin with an aspirate, usually the first aspirate deaspirates. Thus:
| θε/θυ/ > τεθυ/ φε/φυλακ/ > πεφυλακ/ |
Sometimes a verb base shifts its core vowel to ο by a process called ablaut:
| πε/πεμπ/ > πεπομπ/ |
Next, bases that end in a vowel or glide regularly add a /κ/ perfect aspect prefix:
| κε/κελευ/κ/ λε/λυ/κ/ πε/παιδευ/κ/ θε/θυ/κ/ πε/παυ/κ/ |
If the base ends in a stop consonant, that stop consonant often aspirates:
| πε/πεμπ/ > πεπομφ/ φε/φυλακ/ > πεφυλαχ/ |
Lastly, we add the following active personal markers:
| reduplication with ε ἐ/ L/ | BASE occasionally with o-grade | /κ/ aspiration nothing | /α /μεν /ας /ατε /ε /ασι |
Thus:
| κε/κελευ/κ/α > κεκέλευκα | I have commanded |
| λε/λυ/κ/ας > λέλυκας | you have released |
| πε/παιδευ/κ/ε > πεπαίδευκε | she/he/it has educated |
| πε/πεμπ/αμεν > πεπόμφαμεν | we have sent |
| γε/γραφ/ατε > γεγράφατε | you have written |
| θε/θυ/κ/ασι > τεθύκασι | they have sacrificed by fire |
| πε/παυ/κ/α > πέπαυκα | I have stopped |
| φε/φυλακ/ας > πεφύλακας | you have guarded |
29. Pluperfect Indicative Active
The pluperfect is the past perfect and is rare in actual Ancient Greek. Hansen & Quinn, however, will use it a lot.
A verb in the past perfect is recognizable as perfect because of its perfect aspect markers and past time because of the past time marker prefix ἐ/:
| ἐ/ | base with perfect aspect markers | /η /εμεν /ης /ετε /ει /εσαν |
We will see later that past perfect verbs whose bases begin with vowels do not take ἐ/. After all, ἐ/ is reserved only for bases that begin with consonants. However, the personal markers are unique to the past perfect, so these alone should indicate past time.
30. Perfect Infinitive Active
The perfect infinitive active uses the marker /έναι, a combination of both infinitive markers we learned in Unit 2 (/εν and /αι):
| BASE with perfect aspect markers | /έναι |
For instance:
| πε/παιδευ/κ/έναι > πεπαιδευκέναι | to have taught |
31. Present Subjective Active and
32. Aorist Subjunctive Active
Before we look at the subjunctive, let’s talk about verb formation broadly. Verbs usually use a connecting vowel that connects the base to the core personal marker. The connecting vowel is included in the personal markers we learn. For instance, /ομεν is the combination of the connecting vowel /ο/ and the core personal marker /μεν. Likewise, /ετε the combination of connecting vowel /ε/ and core personal marker /τε.
Connecting vowels come in two types: thematic connecting vowels (ε and ο), as seen in the present progressive indicative active, and alpha, as seen in the sigmatic aorist indicative active and the perfect indicative active.
Verb formations that do not use any connecting vowel are called athematic. We will encounter athematic verbs in Unit 5.
If you have some Latin, you know that Latin verbs can be divided into conjugations. Greek verbs don’t have conjugations in the same way. The most effective way to categorize verbs in Greek is by formation: thematic, alpha, or athematic.
Now on to the subjunctive . . .
In Classical Attic, the subjunctive is marked by using a lengthened grade η or ω connecting vowel, no matter the aspect or voice. So for instance instead of /ομεν we have /ωμεν, and instead of /ετε we have /ητε.
Only the indicative has past time; the subjunctive is always present. As a result, we use not-past time personal markers only:
| BASE | progressive aspect marker | /ω /ωμεν /ῃς /ητε /ῃ /ωσι* |
For instance:
| πεμπ/ῃ > πέμπῃ | [translation depends on context] |
* The core not-past time 3rd person active personal marker is /Ṇτι. When in the indicative it combines with the connecting vowel /ο/, we get /οṆτJ > /οντJ (Ṇ becomes ν after a vowel) > /ονσι (τJ becomes σι) > /ο_σι (in verb formation, ν drops before σ) > /ουσι (ο stretches after ν drops). When in the subjunctive /ṆτJ combines with /ω/, all of the above happens (/ωṆτJ > /ωντJ > /ωνσι > /ω_σι), but in the final step ω can’t stretch because it is already long.
The aorist subjunctive is formed in precisely the same way except /σ/ is included to mark aorist aspect for verbs that are sigmatic in the aorist:
| BASE | /σ/ | /ω /ωμεν /ῃς /ητε /ῃ /ωσι |
For instance:
| πεμπ/σ/ωμεν > πέμψωμεν | [translation depends on context] |
| παιδευ/σ/ῃ > παιδεύσῃ | [translation depends on context] |
How to translate the subjunctive is a different matter: it depends entirely on context. For a comprehensive list of uses of the subjunctive, see here. Again, the difference between a progressive subjunctive and an aorist subjunctive is simply one of aspect. Both are present.
33. Present Optative Active
Often Hansen & Quinn uses the term “present” (a time) when in fact they mean “progressive” (an aspect). This is an unfortunate imprecision found in most Greek textbooks and grammars.
The time of a verb in the optative is determined by its function in the sentence. In fact, present is not a time we normally find the optative used in. (See here for uses of the optative.) The “present” optative is actually the progressive optative, meaning that it describes an ongoing, continuous, or repetitive action. It is marked by the same progressive aspect markers we find in the indicative.
The marker of the optative for thematic formations (that is, verbs that use the theme vowel ε/ο in the personal markers) is /οι/. To this are added athematic personal markers. For the most part, these are the usual personal markers but without thematic vowels:
| BASE | progressive aspect marker | /οι/ | /μι /μεν /ς /τε /ø /εν |
For instance:
| πεμπ/οι/μι > πέμποιμι | [translation depends on context] |
As for personal markers, the first person singular /μι is cognate with Latin sum and English “am.” The third singular active once ended in -τ, but τ dropped because it can’t end a Greek word. Likewise, the third plural /εν was once /εντ, familiar to those who have some Latin. For more on personal markers, see here.
For a comprehensive account of the progressive optative active, see here.
34. Aorist Optative Active
Recall that there are two types of aorists: those that mark aorist aspect by adding /σ/, called sigmatic, and those that do not add /σ/, called asigmatic. We learned the sigmatic aorist indicative active in Unit 2 and will learn the asigmatic aorist in Unit 7.
The sigmatic aorist normally uses /αι/ where the thematic progressive had /οι/. In the active, however, an alternate marker /ει/ is common in the 2nd person singular, 3rd person singular, and 3rd person plural. To these are added personal markers typical of the alpha formation. Thus 2nd singular /ει/ας, 3rd singular /ει/ε, and 3rd plural /ει/αν.
| BASE | /σ/ | /αι/ | /μι /μεν /ς /τε /ø /εν |
Or:
| BASE | /σ/ | /ει/ | — — /ας — /ε /αν |
For instance:
| πεμπ/σ/αι/εν > πέμψαιεν | [translation depends on context] |
| πεμπ/σ/ει/αν > πέμψειαν |
For a comprehensive account of the aorist optative active, see here.
Vocabulary
The first column (left) lists the base of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. Words that do not decline, like prepositions and conjunctions, have no base. When the meaning of a word (right) differs from that in the book, it is because the book’s definition is outdated.
| ἄθλο/ | ἄθλον, ἄθλου, τό | prize |
| ἀλλά | but | |
| ἀντί | instead of (+ gen.) | |
| ἀρετά/ | ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς, ἡ | virtue, excellence |
| βουλά/ | βουλή, βουλῆς, ἡ | will, council |
| γραφ/ | γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα, γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, ἐγράφην | write, draw |
| δή | in fact, indeed, of course, yeah | |
| δήμο/ | δῆμος, δήμου, ὁ | the people |
| δημοκρατία/ | δημοκρατία, δημοκρατίας, ἡ | democracy |
| διά | through (+ gen.), on account of (+ acc.) | |
| εἰρήνα/ | εἰρήνη, εἰρήνης, ἡ | peace |
| ἐκκλησία/ | ἐκκλησία, ἐκκλησίας, ἡ | assembly |
| ἐπεί, ἐπειδή | when, after, since | |
| θυ/ | θύω, θύσω, ἔθυσα, τέθυκα, τέθυμαι, ἐτύθην | sacrifice (literally “burn”) |
| ἵνα | in order that | |
| μή | not | |
| νίκα/ | νίκη, νίκης, ἡ | victory |
| ὅπως | in order that | |
| ὁφθαλμό/ | ὀφθαλμός, ὀφθαλμοῦ, ὁ | eye |
| παυ/ | παύω, παύσω, ἔπαυσα, πέπαυκα, πέπαυμαι, ἐπαύθην | stop |
| περί | around (+ dat. or acc.); concerning, about (+ gen. or acc.) | |
| φυλακ/ | φυλάττω, φυλάξω, ἐφύλαξα, πεφύλαχα, πεφύλαγμαι, ἐφυλάχθην | guard |
| ὡς | in order that (other meanings include “as, when” and “that”) |
reading morphologically 