The Syntax of Nouns
Uses of the Nominative
Nominative Subject of a Finite Verb
The sole use of the nominative case is to mark the subject of a finite verb:
| Σωκράτης ἀδικεῖ | Socrates acts unjustly |
Uses of the Genitive
Genitive of Separation
A core function of the genitive case is to indicate separation:
| καὶ ὁ μὲν τροφῆς οὐδὲν δεῖται | and he is not at all lacking food |
At its core, the deponent verb δε/ means “lack.” It can also mean “need” on the assumption that, if you lack a thing, you need it. And it can mean “ask” or “beg,” since if you need a thing, you beg for it. Anyway, the verb takes a genitive because “to lack a thing” means you are separated from that thing.
The genitive of separation often uses a preposition like ἐκ, ἀπό, πρός, and παρά:
| οὐκ ἤγαγον ἐκ Σαλαμῖνος Λέοντα | I did not bring Leon from Salamis |
Salamis is a large island near the harbor of Athens.
Genitive of Source
Another core function of the genitive case is to indicate source:
| ταῦτά μου ἀκούετε | you hear these things from me |
| ταῦτα ὑμῶν δέομαι | I ask for these things from you |
In colloquial English we might say “you hear me (saying) these things” and “I ask you for these things.” Both translations are fine, but correctly the pronouns “me” in the first sentence and “you” in the second indicate source, not the direct object.
Genitive of Possession
The genitive case can identify the possessor of a thing:
| νεκροῦ προσφάτου ἀπέταμε τὴν χεῖρα | he cut off the arm of a freshly killed corpse or: he cut off a freshly killed corpse’s arm |
| ἐν τοῖς Ἅιδου δόμοις | in the house of Hades or: in Hades’ house |
This phrase is so common a way to refer to the Underworld that τοῖς δόμοις is suppressed, leaving simply ἐν Ἅιδου. Greek often uses the plural οἱ δόμοι to refer to a single house.
We are often taught that the genitive of possession is the main function of the genitive case, but this is not true. Historically, the core function of the genitive was to express source or separation. The objective genitive is also common.
Objective Genitive
When a noun has a verbal sense to it, it may govern a genitive to indicate the object of the action expressed by the noun:
| ᾖα ἐπὶ τοὺς ποιητὰς τούς τε τῶν τραγῳδιῶν | I went to the makers of the tragedies |
Often this happens when a noun is derived from a verb. For instance, ποιηταί, “makers,” is a noun derived from the verb ποιέειν, “to make.” If we say ποιέουσι τὰς τραγῳδιας, “they make the tragedies,” the verb governs an accusative direct object. Then, when we turn the verb ποιέουσι into the noun ποιηταί, we also turn the accusative direct object into an objective genitive: ποιηταί τῶν τραγῳδιῶν, “makers of the tragedies.”
Sophocles and Euripides, two of the most famous tragedians from classical antiquity, were alive during Socrates’ lifetime, but there were many others.
The objective genitive is common in Greek, but if its semantics remain unclear, don’t fret: a generic translation with “of” should always be correct.
Subjective Genitive
Similar to the objective genitive, which marks the object of a noun that has a verbal sense to it, the subjective genitive marks the subject:
| οὖν κατηγόρων τὴν ἀντωμοσίαν δεῖ ἀναγνῶναι αὐτῶν | so we should read the oath of the accusers themselves |
Often the subjective genitive is essentially indistinguishable from a possessive genitive. Here, for instance, the oath (ἀντωμοσία) is the possession of the accusers. However, the noun ἀντωμοσία is derived from the verb ἀντόμνυναι, “to swear an oath,” and we can imagine the sentence: κατήγοροι αὐτοὶ ἀντομνύασι, “the accusers themselves swear an oath.” For this reason, in the example sentence above the genitive κατηγόρων αὐτῶν really functions as the subject of the noun ἀντωμοσίαν.
Partitive Genitive / Genitive of the Whole
The partitive genitive, also called the genitive of the whole, identifies the group to which something belongs:
| ἦν δ’ ἂν οὗτος ἢ τῶν ἱππικῶν τις ἢ τῶν γεωργικῶν | and this man would be one of the equestrians or one of the farmers |
Genitive of Description
The genitive is used to describe the material, content, quality, or size of a thing:
| τῆς ἐστι τὸ κῶλον ἕκαστον ὅλου καὶ ἡμίσεος πλέθρου | each side of it (the pyramid) is one and a half plethra |
The Greek literally says “a whole and a half plethron” (one plethron is 100 feet).
| ἤειρον τοὺς ἐπιλοίπους λίθους μηχανῇσι ξύλων βραχέων πεποιημένῃσι | they were raising the remaining stones with machines made of short sticks |
| ὄνους κατασκευασάμενον καὶ ἀσκοὺς πλήσαντα οἴνου ἐπιθεῖναι ἐπὶ τῶν ὄνων | having prepared donkeys and filled skins with wine, he put (the skins) on the donkeys |
A safe way to transport liquid was in animal skins (ἀσκοί). See the image below. The neck and three legs were tied shut. The fourth leg was left with the foot (ποδεών) or rather hoof attached, which could be used as a cork.
Here’s a modern day version used for water outside a café in Sétif, Algeria.
Genitive of Characteristic
The genitive qualifies an action by defining the person or thing able to perform it. Regularly that action is expressed in the infinitive:
| τῶν Ἀθηναίων μὲν κακὰ βουλεῦσαι | it is characteristic of the Athenians to plan poorly |
Genitive of Value or Price
Greek uses the genitive for the price of something, whereas English uses “for”:
| “τίς,” ἦν δ’ ἐγώ, “καὶ ποδαπός, καὶ πόσου διδάσκει;” “Εὔηνος,” ἔφη, “ὦ Σώκρατες, Πάριος, πέντε μνῶν.” | and “who is he,” I said, “and where, and for how much does he teach?” He said, “Evenus, from Paros, for five mina.” |
A mina (μνᾶ) was a unit of currency (originally the weight of 435 grams of silver) equivalent to 100 drachmae. In Classical Athens, a drachma (4.31 grams of silver) was equivalent to a man’s average daily wage. Thus, it cost an enormous amount of money to study under Evenus.
Genitive of Comparison
We may compare two nouns in the same case with ἤ, “than,” or by using the genitive for the noun to which we are comparing a thing:
| τούτου μὲν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐγὼ σοφώτερός εἰμι | I am wiser than this person |
Genitive of Time Within Which
The genitive is used to identify the period of time within which an action occurs:
| ᾐσθόμην τῆς νυκτὸς περιτρέχειν | I perceived that they were running around during the night |
| ἑκάστης ἡμέρας περὶ ἀρετῆς τοὺς λόγους ποιοῦμαι | each day I have conversations about virtue |
—Plato, Apology 38a3 (adapted)
This is distinct from the accusative of duration of time. If Socrates used the accusative ἐκάστην ἡμέραν, he would mean that for the entirety of each day he converses about virtue. In contrast, by using the genitive of time within which he means that talking about virtue is a thing he does at some point during the day.
Genitive Subject of Genitive Absolute
The genitive case is used for the subject of a genitive absolute with a participle:
| χρόνου δὲ περιιόντος τὸν οἰκοδόμον … ἀνακαλέσασθαι τοὺς παῖδας | and with time passing he construction worker summoned his sons |
For more on the genitive absolute, see here <link>.
Genitive of Agent
The agent of a passive verb is regularly indicated by ὑπό (or ἐκ) and the genitive:
| ὑμεῖς, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, πεπόνθατε ὑπὸ τῶν ἐμῶν κατηγόρων | you, Athenian men, have been persuaded by my accusers |
| τὸν δὲ ἱρέα τοῦτον καταδεδεμένον τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς λέγουσι ὑπὸ δύο λύκων ἄγεσθαι ἐς τὸ ἱρὸν τῆς Δήμητρος | and they say that this priest with his eyes bound is led to the temple of Demeter by two wolves |
See the dative of agent below for verbs in the perfect passive.
Genitive with Prepositions
Prepositions govern nouns in the genitive, dative, and accusative cases. There is no perfect way to determine which case a preposition takes and why, which is particularly true in the genitive. While prepositions with the genitive indicate source or separation, there are contradictions. For instance, I come from a place with ἐκ, ἀπό, and παρά, but I go to a place with ἐπί and through a place with διά.
Often prepositions retain their function as prepositions when prefixed to a verb. For instance:
| … μου κατεψηφίσασθε | you voted against me |
The verb κατεψηφίσασθε is segmented κατα/ε/ψηφιδ/σ/ασθε, where ψηφιδ/ means “vote” and κατα/ means “down.” The prefix κατα/ retains its prepositional sense and governs the genitive μου.
For more on prepositions, see here.
Uses of the Dative
Dative Indirect Object
Technically speaking, the indirect object indirectly receives the action of a verb. Put another way, the indirect object is the person to or for whom, or the thing to or for which, a thing is done:
| τῷ βασιλεῖ ταῦτα λέγω | I say these things to the king |
Dative of Possession
With the verbs ἐσ/ and γεν/, the dative is used to indicate possession, not the genitive:
| τῷ οἰκοδόμῳ γὰρ δύο παῖδές εἰσι | for the construction worker has two children |
—Herodotus 1.121A (adapted)
Resist the temptation to translate hyperliterally, like “for there are two children to the construction worker.” This is simply not what the Greek wants to say.
Dative of Means or Instrument
The dative is used for the object used to accomplish something. We saw an instance of the dative of means or instrument in a previous example:
| ἤειρον τοὺς ἐπιλοίπους λίθους μηχανῇσι ξύλων βραχέων πεποιημένῃσι | they were raising the remaining stones with machines made of short sticks |
Dative of Manner
The dative is used to describe the way something happens. It is distinct from the dative of means or instrument in that the dative of manner describes how an action occurs, not what was used to accomplish the act:
| ἰδίῃ δὲ καὶ αὐτὴν διανοηθῆναι μνημήιον καταλιπέσθαι | and in private she even intended to leave a monument behind for herself |
Often the dative of manner can be translated as an adverb. For instance, “privately” also works for ἰδίῃ.
Dative of Respect or Reference
There’s a whole category of dative usages sometimes called reference, sometimes respect, sometimes interest, and sometimes ethical. Perhaps there are subtle differences between, say, a dative of reference and an ethical dative, but they all share the following: they explain the subjective experience of a person or thing to a statement without it affecting the truth of that statement. Take the following example in English.
Boston, MA is a city of around 650,000 people. If you are from Chicago, Il, a city of over 2.6 million, Boston is small. If however you are from Woodland, CA, with a population of about 60,000, Boston is big. In other words: Boston is small for (or with respect to) a Chicagoan, but it is big for (or with respect to) a Woodlander. In these instances, the dative indicates a subjective perspective only.
Consider this in Greek:
| ἀλλὰ γὰρ ἤδη ὥρα ἀπιέναι, ἐμοὶ μὲν ἀποθανουμένῳ, ὑμῖν δὲ βιωσομένοις | but instead now it is time to go away, for me to die and for you to live |
Dative of Degree of Difference
The dative is used with an adjective expressing quantity to emphasize the difference between things. When it is used, it usually accompanies a comparative adjective:
| πολλῷ χαλεπώτεροι οἱ νέοι ἔσονται | the youth will be worse by far or: the youth will be far worse |
Dative of Time When
The dative is used to mark the time when something occurred:
| ἐν ταύτῃ τῇ νυκτὶ οὕτω κατέδαρθεν ὥστε μηδὲ ὄναρ ἰδεῖν | on that night he slept in such a way that he did not have a dream |
Dative of Place Where
The dative is used to indicate place where:
| εἴωθα λέγειν καὶ ἐν ἀγορᾷ | I am used to speaking in the marketplace |
Dative of Agent
The agent of a passive verb is usually expressed by ὑπό (sometimes ἐκ) with the genitive. Perfect passive verbs, however, regularly express the agent in the dative case without a preposition:
| τὰ ποιήματα πεπραγμάτευται αὐτοῖς | the poems have been composed by them |
—Plato, Apology 22b3-4 (adapted)
Dative with Prepositions
Prepositions govern nouns in the genitive, dative, and accusative cases. While there is no perfect way to determine which case a preposition takes and why, often the prepositions with the dative indicate stasis: time without duration and space without movement. For instance, in the dative you are at a time and in a place (ἐν), on a thing (ἐπί), with others (συν), at someone’s side (παρά).
Often prepositions retain their function as prepositions when prefixed to a verb. For instance:
| ἐν Ἅιδου Ὀρφεῖ συγγενήσομαι καὶ Μουσαίῳ καὶ Ἡσιόδῳ καὶ Ὁμήρῳ | In Hades I will hang out with Orpheus, Musaeus, Hesiod, and Homer |
—Plato, Apology 41a6-7 (adapted)
The Greeks thought that Homer was the author of epic poems including the Iliad and the Odyssey. Hesiod composed two poems: the Theogony and Works and Days. Musaeus was the son of Orpheus, two legendary or mythological poets who held a special place in Greek religion.
The verb συγγενήσομαι (συν/γεν/σ/ομαι) includes the prepositional prefix συν, assimilated to συγ- before γ. The preposition συν means “with” and governs the dative. Thus here it governs the datives Ὀρφεῖ, Μουσαίῳ, Ἡσιόδῳ, and Ὁμήρῳ.
For more on prepositions, see here.
Uses of the Accusative
Accusative Direct Object
The commonest use of the accusative case is to mark the direct object of a verb:
| ταῦτα διδάσκω | I teach these things |
| τοὺς νέους διδάσκω | I teach the youth |
Some verbs, like διδακ/, take a double accusative, allowing us to combine the example sentences above:
| τοὺς νέους ταῦτα διδάσκω | I teach the youth these things |
Sometimes Greek uses a cognate accusative: a direct object whose root is the same as the root of its verb. It is sometimes called an internal accusative and cannot always be translated in English:
| πολλὴν φλυαρίαν φλυαρέω | I talk lots of nonsense |
—Plato, Apology 19c4 (adapted)
A common Greek idiom is ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν, literally “as to say a word,” where ἔπος (from root ϝεπ/) is the cognate or internal accusative of εἰπεῖν (also from root ϝεπ/). The phrase is used to weaken the strict, literal meaning of a statement and can be translated “almost” or “practically”:
| καίτοι ἀληθές γε ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν οὐδὲν εἰρήκασιν | and yet they have said almost nothing true |
Accusative of Duration of Time
The accusative is used to express the time over which an action occurs:
| οἱ εὐδαίμονες τὸν λοιπὸν χρόνον ἀθάνατοί εἰσιν | the happy people are immortal for the remaining time |
—Plato, Apology 41c5-6 (adapted)
Compare this use to the genitive of time within which.
Accusative Subject of an Infinitive
The subject of an infinitive is given in the accusative case no matter the function of the infinitive:
| οὐδεὶς γὰρ ἐφοίτα παρ’ αὐτῶν διὰ τὸ φρουρεῖσθαι τὴν πόλιν ἀκριβῶς ὑπὸ τῶν βαρβάρων. | for no one was leaving from them due to the city being carefully guarded by the barbarians |
In this instance, τὴν πόλιν is the subject accusative of the articular infinitive τὸ φρουρεῖσθαι, the object of the preposition διὰ.
For more, see here.
Subject Accusative in Indirect Statement
For more, see here.
| οὐ νομίζω θεοὺς εἶναι | I do not think that gods exist |
Accusative of Exclamation
The prepositions μά and νή with the accusative are used with a noun, often a diety’s name, as a form of affirmative invocation. Here are phrases that appear in Plato’s Apology:
| μὰ Δία or νὴ Δία νὴ τὴν Ἥραν νὴ τὸν κύνα | by Zeus! by Hera! by the dog! |
Accusative with Prepositions
Prepositions govern nouns in the genitive, dative, and accusative cases. While there is no perfect way to determine which case a preposition takes and why, often the prepositions with the accusative indicate motion toward. For instance, I go down with κατά, down under with ὑπό, onto with ἐπί, toward with πρός, to one’s side with παρά, and into with εἰς (ἐς in Ionic).
For more on prepositions, see here.
Adverbial Accusative
When a noun in the accusative cannot be a direct object, does not express time, is not the subject of an infinitive, and is not governed by a preposition, doubtless it is either an adverbial accusative or an accusative of respect.
For more on the adverbial accusative, see here <link>, but in short: an adverbial accusative is usually* an adjective in the neuter singular unless that adjective is superlative, in which case it is neuter plural:
| πρῶτον τέλος τάχιστα | at first finally most quickly |
* The neuter plural substantive adjective πολλά, as in πολλὰ λέγω, may simply be the direct object (“I say many things”). Really, though, it is adverbial, as in πολλὰ θαυμάζω, “I am very amazed.”
Accusative of Respect
The adverbial accusative is usually an adjective. If you find an accusative noun in a sentence without an obvious syntactical function (for instance as direct object or object of a preposition), it is likely an accusative of respect. Often it is used to qualify a statement:
| τῷ ὄντι γὰρ κινδυνεύω ταύτην εἶναι σοφός | for truly I run the risk of being wise with respect to this |
In the target passage, ταύτην refers to ἀνθρωπίνη σοφία (20d8), “human wisdom.”
Sometimes grammarians talk about “the accusative of body part.” Really this is just an accusative of respect that specifies the part of the body to which an action is relevant. We saw this in an earlier example:
| τὸν δὲ ἱρέα τοῦτον καταδεδεμένον τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς λέγουσι ὑπὸ δύο λύκων ἄγεσθαι ἐς τὸ ἱρὸν τῆς Δήμητρος | and they say that this priest with his eyes bound is led to the temple of Demeter by two wolves |
Literally τὸν ἱρέα καταδεδεμένον τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς means “the priest, having been bound with respect to his eyes,” but that’s a bit clunky in English.
Uses of the Vocative
The only use of the vocative case is to address directly a person or thing. It is often but not always accompanied by the preposition ὦ, equivalent to “hey” in informal English:
| ὦ ἄνδρες | hey guys! |
Uses Regardless of Case
Predicate
A noun (or adjective) is a predicate when it says something about the subject of a verb, participle, or infinitive. Typically a verb like ἐσ/ or γεν/ links the predicate to the noun it defines:
| ὁ βασιλεὺς θεός ἐστι | the king is a god |
| τοῦ βασιλέος θεοῦ γενομένου, χαίρω | with the king having become a god, I rejoice |
| τῷ βασιλεῖ ὡς θεῷ ὄντι λέγω | I speak to the king as if he were a god |
| τὸν βασιλέα θεὸν κληθῆναι ἐθέλειν νομίζω | I think that the king wants to be called a god |
Appositive
An appositive is a noun placed beside another noun to add clarify to the noun it accompanies:
| ἔστιν τις Σωκράτης, σοφὸς ἀνήρ | there’s some guy Socrates, a wise man |
| Λεωνίδην, τὸν τῶν Σπαρτιατῶν στρατηγόν, τιμᾶσι | they honor Leonidas, the general of the Spartans |
reading morphologically 