Greek Little Words

The Little Words

ἀλλά

In general, ἀλλά is an adversative particle, establishing a contrast between two propositions. This sense of contrast should come as no surprise when one recognizes its etymological link to the adjective ἄλλο/, “other.” Its simplest translation, and the one safest to apply broadly, is “but.”

On occasion, though, the contrast produced by ἀλλά can be rendered nearly imperceptible. An example of one such use-case can be seen in the following passage:

ΛΙΧΑΣ: καὶ στέργε τὴν γυναῖκα καὶ βούλου λόγους
_____οὓς εἶπας ἐς τήνδ’, ἐμπέδως εἰρηκέναι…
ΔΗΙΑΝΕΙΡΑ: ἀλλ’ ὧδε καὶ φρονοῦμεν ὥστε ταῦτα δρᾶν

LICHAS: Be kind to the woman, and allow the words you
______said about her to have been spoken with certainty…
DEIANEIRA: But of course! I intend for things to turn out that way.

—Sophocles, Trachiniae 486-490

Deianeira, despite beginning her response with ἀλλά, is clearly in agreement with Lichas’ proposed course of action, as reflected in the translation “but of course.” The contrast being created, then, is not between Lichas’ proposition and Deianeira’s reaction, but rather between Lichas’ proposition and Lichas’ expectation that Deianeira would have disagreed.

ἄν

There are only two uses of ἄν in Classical Greek.

(1) In a subordinate clause with the subjunctive, ἄν attaches to the conjunction or relative pronoun introducing the clause. In this instance, it means “-ever”:

Here, the force of the subjunctive is captured by the general nature of “-ever.” Do not translate with an English modal. In other words, do not use “would/might/could” to translate the subjunctive.

(2) When accompanying a verb that is not in the subjunctive, ἄν is translated “would” (or “might” or “could”). This use is called the potential.

Specifically, to form a future potential, ἄν accompanies a verb in the optative (any aspect):

To form a present potential, ἄν accompanies a verb in the past progressive indicative:

And to form a past potential, ἄν accompanies a verb in the aorist indicative:

For more, see here <potential ἄν in indirect statement> and here <droppage of ἄν in past general>

ἄρα (ἄρ, ῥα)

Though this word has many definitions in common circulation (“right away,” “namely,” and “perhaps,” to name only a few), and a few broad categorical explanations (e.g., “connection,” “transition”), what seems to link them all is the implication of the speaker’s enthusiastic interest in the subject at hand.

As is the case with many Greek particles, ἄρα should probably be treated more as a ‘seasoning’ for the sentence than as a contributor of any true denotative force. In translating, a sentence containing ἄρα should be spoken with a bit more energy than one without it.

ἆρα

There are two major uses of ἆρα in Classical Greek, the first of which can be dispensed with quickly. In short, it is used synonymously with ἄρα.

The second use of ἆρα in Classical Greek is as an interrogative particle, in which use it is regularly found in first position of the sentence (though, as always, poetic texts are more flexible than prose). Though ἆρα on its own does not imply the expectation of either a positive or a negative response, its combination with other words can make such an implication; a sentence beginning with ἆρ’ οὐ, for instance, usually expects an affirmative response.

ἀτάρ (αὐτάρ)

This word’s primary force is adversative, sometimes replacing δέ as the correlative partner to μέν. The strength of the adversative can vary quite widely, at times becoming so weak as to appear completely absent:

λάμπει δ’ ἠελίοιο μένος κατὰ πίονα γαῖαν καλόν, ἀτὰρ νεφέων οὐδὲν ἔτ’ ἔστιν ἰδεῖν

The sun’s might shines down beautifully onto the fertile earth, but it is no longer possible to see the clouds.

-Solon, Fragment 1.24

In Homer, ἀτάρ and αὐτάρ are treated as synonyms. As time progressed, αὐτάρ was used nearly exclusively in epic, while ἀτάρ was used more widely but considered somewhat colloquial.

γάρ

Far and away the most common use of γάρ is to introduce an explanation for a particular statement or decision; this explanation usually comes in the clause immediately following the original statement, but can occasionally be found elsewhere.

As often with Greek particles, though, the primary (here, explanatory) sense is sometimes obscured. In the so-called “progressive” use of γάρ, as just one example, we will see a speaker advancing the conversation by explaining, e.g., an agreement or misunderstanding with their interlocutor which is only implied:

ΧΡΥΣΟΘΕΜΙΣ: ἦ τοὺς θανόντας ἐξαναστήσω ποτέ;
ΗΛΕΚΤΡΑ: οὐκ ἔσθ’ ὅ γ’ εἶπον· οὐ γὰρ ὧδ’ ἄφρων ἔφυν.
ΧΡΥΣΟΘΕΜΙΣ: τί γὰρ κελεύεις ὧν ἐγὼ φερέγγυος;

Chrysothemis: Then am I going to bring the dead back to life?
Electra: That’s not what I said; I wasn’t born so stupid.
Chrysothemis: Well what are you telling me to do that I’m capable of?

-Sophocles, Electra 940-942

The γάρ in Chrysothemis’ response is, essentially, explaining that her initial question was born of a misunderstanding without needing to explicitly say so: “I didn’t understand that there was an actual solution to this problem; for (γάρ) what could you possibly tell me to do that I’m capable of and could solve our current problem?”

γε

As is the case with many Greek particles, γε should certainly be treated more as a ‘seasoning’ for the sentence than as a contributor of any true denotative force. In translating, the word, phrase, or sentence modified by γε should be italicized (in print) or marked by a shift in pitch (viva voce).

<add: qualifies “at least I” or emphasizes “definitely I”>

δέ

δή

δῆθεν

Sike!

δήπου

δῆτα

εἰ

εἰ γάρ / εἴθε

ἦ

καί

καίτοι

κε(ν)

In epic poetry, the enclitic κε or κεν is found in place of ἄν with precisely the same usages.

μέν

It is always best to ignore men.

μέντοι

μήν

οὖν (ὦν)

Textbooks often tell you to translate οὖν as “therefore,” but this is usually wrong. More often than not, οὖν is a resumptive, like “so” or “anyway” in colloquial English:

περ

που

τε

τι

τοι

ὦ

Hey!

….

lots of others… various forms of η… what about interjections?