Glossary of Terms
Ablaut
Alpha Formation
Alpha formation is when a verb uses /α/ to connect the stem to the personal marker:
ἐ/πραγ/σ/α/μεν > ἐπράξαμεν
In Reading Morphologically, the connecting vowel is included with the personal marker, so ἐπράξαμεν will be segmented ἐ/πραγ/σ/αμεν.
Because alpha is not a theme vowel, alpha formation is a type of athematic formation.
Asigmatic
When a verb does not use /σ/ to mark aorist aspect, it is called asigmatic (literally “without sigma”):
L/ἐλθ/ον > ἦλθον
Compare sigmatic.
Aspect
…
Assimilation
In phonetics, when a sound becomes more like an adjacent sound for ease of articulation:
κε/κλεπ/μαι > κέκλεμμαι
Here, the labial stop π becomes the labial nasal μ before another labial nasal.
Athematic
A word that does not use a thematic vowel (full grade /ε/ or /ο/ or lengthened grade /η/ or /ω/) to connect the stem to a personal or case marker:
ἐργαδ/ται > ἔργασται
δυνα/ται > δύναται
Compare thematic, and see word formation for more.
Base
The base of a word is the word minus prefixes and suffixes, including markers. In the case of verbs, base is usually equivalent to root (the core unit of a word that conveys lexical meaning only). In the case of nouns and adjectives, it includes the theme vowel where one is present. As a result, the base of the verb λέγω is λεγ/, but the base of the noun λόγος is λόγο/.
As you progress in your study of Greek, we will show you how to see words in terms of roots and stems instead of base.
Because the accent on a verb is determined only once the final form of the word is produced, verb bases include no accent (thus λεγ/, for instance). For all other parts of speech, where the accentuation is persistent, an accent appears on the base (thus λόγο/, for instance).
Borrowing
When speakers of one language take a word from a foreign language, that word is called a borrowing or loanword. For instance, the English word “coup” is borrowed from French, “bona fide” from Latin, and “apology” through French from Ancient Greek.
A borrowing is not the same as a derivative, though non-linguists often conflate the two.
Cognate
Cognate means “born together” and refers to different words that evolved from one word in a parent language. For instance, Latin videō, “I see,” and Ancient Greek οἶδα, “I know,” both come from the same PIE root *wid/, “see,” and are therefore cognates.
A cognate is not the same as a derivative, though non-linguists often conflate the two.
Contraction
Crasis
Derivative
A derivative is a word that is created from another word in the same language. For instance, the English noun “information” is derived from the verb “inform.” In Greek, the verb θαυμάζειν, “to be amazed,” is derived from the noun θαῦμα, “amazement.”
A derivative is distinct from a loanword or borrowing and a cognate, though non-linguists often incorrectly call them all a derivative.
Dissimilation
The opposite of assimilation. Dissimilation occurs when in phonetics a sound becomes less like an adjacent sound for ease of articulation.
In the English word “colonel,” for instance, which we pronounce /kṛnḷ/, the first “l” (a dental) becomes “r” (a velar) so that the subsequent consonants (“n” and “l,” both dentals) are easier to pronounce.
See Grassmann’s Law for the dissimilation of aspirates and quantitative dissimilation for the dissimilation of vowels.
Double Dental Rule
When the combination of a base and a marker results in the combination of two dental stops, σ is inserted between them, and the preceding dental stop drops:
θε/θαυματ/ται > τεθαύματσται > τεθαύμασται
See here for on the Double Dental Rule.
Droppage
Epic Correption
When a long vowel concludes a word, if the next word begins with a vowel it may become short.
<example>
Euphony
<also ease of articulation>
Geminate Reduction
When a consonant cluster consists of two of the same consonants, over time the cluster becomes a single consonant:
ἐσ/σ/ομαι > ἔσσομαι (Archaic) > ἔσομαι (Classical)
ἐ/τελεσ/σ/α > ἐτέλεσσα (Archaic) > ἐτέλεσα (Classical)
Grassmann’s Law
Grassmann’s Law identifies an instance of dissimilation, when in two consecutive aspirated syllables typically the first deaspirates:
θι/θε/μεν > τίθεμεν
θρεφ/ω > τρέφω (but θρεφ/σ/ω > θρέψω)
This helps explain forms of verbs like ἐχ/, from an original σεχ/, where word-initial σ- became a rough breathing. So the present progressive ἕχω (/hekhō/) becomes ἔχω (/ekhō/), but the future ἕξω (/heksō/) is fine as is.
Heavy Syllable
See weight.
Hypercorrection
Hyperliteral
Hyperliteral refers to a translation that so excessively captures the Greek morphology, syntax, or word order that the English is not what the Greek intends to say. For instance, a hyperliteral translation of ἵπποι μοί εἰσι is “there are horses for me.” In contrast, a literal translation renders the construction, not just the individual words, into the equivalent English construction: “I have horses.”
Iota Adscript
Iota Subscript
Laryngeal
Length
Lengthening
<content>
Compare stretching.
Light Syllable
See weight.
Liquid Consonant
Loanword
See borrowing.
Long Vowel
See length.
Marker
A marker is an item added to a root to give a word grammatical function. Take the word ἔλεξα (ἐ/λεγ/σ/α). The ἐ/ is a marker that gives the word past time, the /σ/ is a marker that gives the word aorist aspect, and the /α is a marker that gives the word person and number (in this case, first person singular).
The technical term for a marker is morpheme.
Metathesis, Phonemic
Metathesis means “changing places.” Phonemic metathesis is when two phonemes, or sounds, change place. For instance: βα/ν/J/ω > βάνιω > βαίνω, “I go,” where ν and ι have switched places by phonemic metathesis.
Metathesis, Quantitative
Metathesis means “changing places.” Quantitative metathesis is when the quantity, or length, of dissimilar vowels flip. By quantitative metathesis, the Homeric genitive βασιλῆος becomes the Attic genitive βασιλέως.
Merlin Consonants
Shorthand referring to the nasal consonants μ and ν and the liquid consonants ρ and λ. These are grouped together because they behave similarly when combined with certain other consonants. For more, see here.
Morpheme
See marker.
Morphophonology
Nasal Consonant
Phoneme
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that we make when we speak. For instance, the English word “pit” is comprised of three distinct phonemes: /p/, /i/, and /t/.
Quantitative Dissimilation
Greek tends to avoid the excessive repetition of short vowels. To break up the sequence of short vowels, a short vowel may lengthen: σοφό/τατο/ς > σοφώτατος.
Root
A root is the smallest unit of a word that carries lexical information only. For instance, the root of the English word “prediction” is simply “dic/,” a Latin root that means “say.”
Sigmatic
When a verb uses /σ/ to mark aorist aspect, it is called sigmatic:
ἐ/πραγ/σ/α > ἔπραξα
Compare asigmatic.
Short Vowel
See length.
Spittage
Spittage is a term coined by Dr. Cassandra Donnelly to describe the aspiration of a stop consonant (π, β, τ, δ, κ, γ) when near an aspirate (φ, θ, χ). For instance, ἐ/λαβ/θη/ν > ἐλήφθην. See also παθ/σκ/ω > πάσχω, where θ drops before σ, but the aspiration in θ remains and “spits” on κ, resulting in χ.
Stem
The stem of a word is everything minus the case marker for nouns and adjectives and the personal marker for verbs. For instance, the stem of λέξαντι, “to/for the one having spoken,” is λέξαντ- (λέγ/σ/αντ/).
Stop Consonant
Stop consonants are phonemes that stop the flow of air in the vocal tract when they are pronounced. Stop consonants pronounced with the lips are called labials: π, β, and φ. Stop consonants pronounced with the tongue against the back of the teeth are called dentals: τ, δ, and θ. Stop consonants pronounced with the back of the tongue raised toward the roof of the mouth are called velars: κ, γ, and χ.
Stretching
Also called compensatory lengthening, this occurs when a vowel lengthens to compensate for the loss of a subsequent consonant. This lengthening is distinct from what occurs due to ablaut. To avoid confusion, we therefore call this phonetic shift “stretching,” not “lengthening.”
Vowels stretch as follows:
α > ᾱ or η
ε > ει
ι > ῑ
ο > ου
υ > ῡ
No change occurs to the long vowels ᾱ, η, ῑ, ω, and ου (pronounced /ū/).
In Aeolic, α stretches to αι and ο stretches to οι.
Compare lengthening, and see here for more on stretching.
Suppression
Suppression is when a word drops from a phrase for shorthand. The phrase is so common that speakers know the suppressed word, and we should translate it, even though it’s not in the printed text. For instance, εἰς Ἅιδου, “to of Hades,” has a suppressed τοὺς δόμους, as in εἰς τοὺς Ἅιδου δόμους, “to the house of Hades.” It is one way Greeks reference death.
A common instance of suppression occurs with names …… also cases of ὁδῷ vel sim. dropping….
add ὁ + genitive for a name
Tense
…
Thematic
A word that uses a theme vowel /ε/ or /ο/ (or lengthened grade /η/ or /ω/) to connect the stem to the case or personal ending:
λεγ/ο/μεν > λέγομεν
λόγ/ο/ς > λόγος
In Reading Morphologically, the theme vowel is included in the personal markers for verbs (so λέγομεν will be segmented λεγ/ομεν) and in the base of nouns and adjectives (so λόγος will be segmented λόγο/ς).
Compare athematic, and see word formation for more.
Time
<including binary distinction between past and not-past time>
Voiced / Voiceless
Vowel Contraction
Vowel contraction reduces the number of syllables in a word. In a way, it is a form of slurring. As a general rule, Ionic avoids contraction whereas Attic embraces it:
καλε/ω > καλέω (Ionic) but καλῶ (Attic)
For details on vowel contraction, see here.
Weight
reading morphologically 