Ablaut, or Vowel Gradation

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Introduction

Ablaut is a pattern of vowel alternation available to some vowels. If a vowel shifts according to ablaut, it has only the following options: zero grade (it disappears entirely), basic e-grade (ε), full o-grade (ο), lengthened e-grade (η), and lengthened o-grade (ω).

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Intermediate

Greek is an inflected language. This means that markers are added to bases to mark everything from number and case to aspect and time and more. Markers can also come in the form of vowel shifts without the addition of new letters. Take for instance English “foot,” whose plural is not “foots” but “feet.” And the past of “sing” is “sang,” not “singed.”

Shifts in the quality or quantity of some vowels in Greek also change the type or function of the word. For instance, to make a noun from the verb base λεγ/, “speak,” shift the vowel to short ο: λόγος, “statement.” Similarly, from πεμπ/, “send,” we find “πομπός, “guide,” and from σκεπ/, “look,” we find σκοπός, “spy.” In Greek, this vowel shift is called ablaut or vowel gradation, and it can mark all sorts of things.

Ablaut or vowel gradation is a pattern of vowel alternation available to some vowels. You can’t always predict what vowels can do this, but knowing that some vowels can shift, and how they shift when they do, explains word forms that might otherwise seem irregular. (“Irregular” means that there is no rule, but in linguistics there is always a rule, even if we can’t always be sure what that rule is. So we avoid the term whenever possible.)

Not all vowels in Greek exhibit ablaut, but when they do they have five options. This figure, the “Ablaut Grid,” systematizes them:

A vowel that exhibits ablaut may appear as ε or ο (called full grade), η or ω (called lengthened grade), or not appear at all (called zero grade). The difference here is a matter of quantity. Full grade refers to short ε and ο, lengthened grade refers to the long version of those vowels, namely η and ω, and zero grade refers to the absence of those vowel—therefore no quantity at all.

Vowels that exhibit Ablaut may be either e-grade (full e- grade ε or lengthened e-grade η) or o-grade (full o-grade ο or lengthened o-grade ω). Thus, there may also be a qualitative shift.

Full e-grade is called basic e-grade because, when a base has a vowel that shifts on this grid, ε is the preferred vowel used for that base in a dictionary.

Zero grade often results in a consonant cluster. In these instances, α regularly appears for euphony, or ease of pronunciation. For instance, the zero grade of τεμ/, τμ/, may appear as ταμ/. Thus, α may indicate zero grade in bases that exhibit ablaut.

However, if a consonant cluster consists of two liquids and/or nasals (μρλν), δ is inserted instead of α. For instance, zero grade ἄνρα > ἄνδρα, “a man” (accusative singular). See Merlin consonant clusters for more.

Here are some common instances of ablaut in action:

Nominative Singular

The rule for forming the nominative singular of nouns and adjectives is: if the last vowel of the base or stem can lengthen, it will. If it can’t, add /ς. The lengthening of a vowel to mark the nominative singular is ablaut:

ἡγεμόν/L > ἡγεμών	leader
μήτερ/L > μήτηρ	mother

Deverbal Nouns and Adjectives

“Deverbal” refers to a word derived from a verb. We saw a few examples of this above. Here’s a longer list:

ϝεχ/ (not to be confused with ἐχ/ have, hold)	carry	ὄχο/ ὁ	carriage
		αἰγίοχο/ ὁ	aegis-bearer (an epithet of Zeus, who wears a goatskin [αἴγ/ goat])
λεγ/	speak	λόγο/ ὁ	statement
λιπ/	leave	λοιπό/	remaining
πεμπ/	send	πομπό/ ὁ	guide
σκεπ/	watch	σκοπό/ ὁ	spy, lookout-man
φερ/	carry	φορά/ ἡ	procession (e.g. when a body is carried in a funeral)
		φώρ/ ὁ*	thief
		ὁπλοφόρο/ ὁ	soldier (ὁπλο/ shield, weapon)
χεϝ/	pour	οἰνοχόο/ ὁ	cupbearer, wine-pourer

* Normally the shift is to full grade, but here the shift is to lengthened grade.

Theme Vowels

Connecting vowels connect bases to personal markers and are standardly included as part of the personal marker. Take the first plural /ομεν and /αμεν. The core personal marker is /μεν. The ο and α are connecting vowels.

Theme vowels are a type of connecting vowel that shifts according to ablaut as follows:

<chart>

	Singular	Plural
1st person	ο	ο
2nd person	ε	ε
3rd person	ε	ο

They appear in the not-past time active personal markers as follows:

Progressive Active Indicative

	Singular	Plural
1st person	λέγω*	λέγομεν
2nd person	λέγεις	λέγετε
3rd person	λέγει	λέγουσι

* The first person singular marker is a lengthening of the theme vowel.

The same pattern appears in all other thematic formations <link>.

The Subjunctive

The subjunctive is marked simply by lengthening the grade of the theme vowel. This is another instance of ablaut.

Progressive Active Subjunctive

	Singular	Plural
1st person	λέγω	λέγωμεν
2nd person	λέγῃς (λέγηις)	λέγητε
3rd person	λέγῃ (λέγηι)	λέγωσι*

* The indicative /ουσι is from /οṆτJ > ονσι > ο_σι > ουσι. Thus, ου is the result of stretching ο. No such stretching occurs in the subjunctive /ωσι, from /ωṆτJ > ωνσι > ω_σι > ωσι, because only short vowels stretch.

Principal Parts

Some verbs show regular ablaut shifts in their principal parts. Asigmatic zero grade aorist bases like λιπ/ and πιθ/ are basic e-grade in the progressive (λείπω, πείθω), basic e-grade in the future (λείψω, πείσω), zero grade in the aorist active (ἔλιπον, ἔπιθον), full o-grade in the perfect active (λέλοιπα, πέποιθα), basic e-grade in the perfect middle or passive (λέλειμμαι, πέπεισμαι), and basic e-grade in the aorist passive (ἐλείφθην, ἐπείσθην):

Progressive	ε	λείπω
Future	ε	λείψω
Aorist active	ø	ἔλιπον
Perfect active	ο	λέλοιπα
Perfect middle or passive	ε	λέλειμμαι (λε/λειπ/μαι)
Aorist passive	ε	ἐλείφθην (ἐ/λειπ/θη/ν)

Bases that are basic e-grade in the asigmatic aorist like γεν/ and πετ/ mark the progressive aspect by reduplication with ι and zero grade (γίγνομαι, πίπτω). Following the pattern above, γεν/ is full o-grade in the perfect active (γέγονα).